Vol.:(0123456789)1 3 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-022-01522-5 ORIGINAL PAPER Long‑term dog consumption during the Holocene at the Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain): case study of the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site M.Ángeles Galindo‑Pellicena1,2,3 · Nohemi Sala1,4 · Ignacio De Gaspar5,6 · Eneko Iriarte7 · Raquel Blázquez‑Orta6 · Juan Luis Arsuaga1,8 · José Miguel Carretero1,7,9 · Nuria García1,6 Received: 9 April 2021 / Accepted: 11 February 2022 © The Author(s) 2022 Abstract Evidence of dog consumption at the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain) from the Holocene is revealed for the first time. The taxonomical and taphonomical studies of the animal bones from the El Portalón site have been carried out. The morphological and metrical analyses indicate that 130 dog bone remains have been identified from the El Portalón site, including from the Neolithic (NISP = 23), Chalcolithic (Pre-Bell Beaker Chalcolithic and Bell Beaker Chalcolithic) (26), Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age (81). The anthropic evidence encompasses cut marks, fresh bone fractures, human tooth marks and fire modifications, thus constituting clear evidence of cynophagy, at least in the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age levels in different contexts (habitat and funerary) from the El Portalón site (Ata- puerca, Burgos). Furthermore, the fire alterations on two bone remains from the Neolithic suggest likely dog consumption due to the domestic character of the stratigraphical units where these bone remains were found. The taphonomic evidence suggests that domestic dogs were, at least occasionally, part of the diet of the humans who inhabited the El Portalón site, a fact that might be caused either by food shortages and hunger or as dog meat was considered as a delicacy. Keywords Cynophagy · Neolithic · Chalcolithic · Bronze Age · Northern Plateau · Diet * Nuria García nugarcia@ucm.es M.Ángeles Galindo-Pellicena mangeles.galindo@fgua.es Nohemi Sala nohemi.sala@cenieh.es Ignacio De Gaspar idegaspar@vet.ucm.es Eneko Iriarte eiriarte@ubu.es Raquel Blázquez-Orta rborta@ucm.es Juan Luis Arsuaga jlarfer@gmail.com José Miguel Carretero jmcarre@ubu.es 1 Centro Mixto, UCM-ISCIII de Evolución y Comportamiento Humanos, Madrid, Spain 2 Museo Arqueológico Regional, Pz de Las Bernardas s/n, Alcalá de Henares, 28801 Madrid, Spain 3 Fundación General de La Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, C/Imagen 3, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain 4 Centro Nacional de Investigación Sobre La Evolución Humana, Paseo Sierra Atapuerca, 3, Burgos, Spain 5 Sección Departamental de Anatomía y Embriología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Avda. Puerta del Hierro S/N. Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain 6 Departamento de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Grupo UCM Ecosistemas Cuaternarios, Facultad de Ciencias Geológicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Jose Antonio Novais, 12, 28040 Madrid, Spain 7 Laboratorio de Evolución Humana, Departamento de Historia, Geografía y Comunicación, Universidad de Burgos, Edificio I+D+i, Plaza de Misael Bañuelos s/n, 09001 Burgos, Spain 8 Departamento de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología Facultad de Ciencias Geológicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Calle José Antonio Novais, 12, 28040 Madrid, Spain 9 Unidad Asociada de I+D+I Al CSIC “VIMPAC” (Vidrio y Materiales de Patrimonio Cultural), Burgos, Spain http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s12520-022-01522-5&domain=pdf Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 84 Page 2 of 21 Introduction Nowadays, eating dog meat is considered taboo in many cultures, while it is perfectly acceptable, even considered a delicacy, in other cultures. Cynophagy is a common prac- tice in different regions of the world: Southeast Asia (in the Philippines, there is a typical dish made of dog meat called Asocena), North and South America, the Pacific and in Northern Africa (the Amazigh are known for their custom of eating dogs: Simoons 1991, 1994). On the other hand, some societies (Hindus, Buddhists, Westerners and Muslims) are anti-dog eating for different reasons and Islamic law forbids dog consumption (The Encyclopaedia of Islam 1999) because it is considered an impure animal. In Europe, there is evidence of cynophagy from the Mesolithic to the Iron Age (Böyönki 1975). Historical evi- dence for dog eating has been documented in both Rome and Greece (Simoons 1994), but only for medicinal pur- poses. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, in Munich (Germany), dog consumption was related to indus- trialization and population growth. Dogs were mainly con- sumed by poor and working-class people due to its lower cost compared with other kinds of meats (Geppert 1992). However, authors like Gautier (1990) believe that dogs are not an important source of protein due to their small size; however, according to Simoons (1994), dog meat contains as much protein and less fat than pork and is very tasty. Regarding the zooarchaeological evidence, dog con- sumption in the Iberian Peninsula is documented during the Early Neolithic at the nearby El Mirador archaeologi- cal site in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain) located 1 km from the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site. It con- stitutes one of the oldest evidences found in the Iberian Peninsula (5230–4920 cal BC) and the first case where human tooth marks have been used to show dog consump- tion (Martín et al. 2014). In addition, evidence of cyn- ophagy has been observed in another Iberian Neolithic site, the La Sarsa site (Mediterranean Iberia) (López and Molero 1984); however, this site does not provide a precise chronology. There are more dog remains with evidence of anthropic consumption (cut marks on the surface of the dog bones and fractures in fresh bones) from the Bronze Age period, such as the Lloma de Betxí; Pic del Corbs; the Cabezo Redondo sites in Comunidad Valenciana (San- chis and Sarrión 2004); Castellón Alto; Terrera del Reloj (Milz 1986); the Cerro de la Encina sites (Friesch 1987) in Granada; the Palacios and Azuer sites in Ciudad Real (Driesch Von Den and Boessneck, 1980); the Gatas site in Almería; and La Bastida in Murcia (Andúgar Martínez 2016) (see Table 1). Here, we present the taxonomic study of the canids and the taphonomic analysis in terms of the specific aspects of consumption found in the domestic canid remains from Neolithic to Bronze Age archaeostratigraphical sequence of the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site (Sierra de Atapu- erca, Burgos). The objective of the taphonomic study is to characterise the presence of human-induced modifica- tions, carnivore activities and post-depositional signs on dog bones to trace the consumption of these canids from the Neolithic to Bronze Age periods at this site. The El Portalón de Cueva Mayor archaeological site The El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site is located in a cave in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos) on the Northern Plateau of Spain (Fig. 1A). It is the current entrance to the Cueva Mayor-Cueva del Silo karstic system. Prolonged human occupation has been documented, ranging from the Late Pleistocene to the Medieval Age (Clark et al. 1979; Carret- ero et al. 2008; Pérez-Romero et al. 2010, 2013, 2015). The archaeo-stratigraphic sequence exceeds 10 m of depth and is divided into 11 stratigraphic units, which are in turn grouped into two sedimentary units: the Late Pleistocene (level 11 and level 10, which is the Pleistocene/Holocene transition) and the Holocene. During the Holocene, there is evidence of human occupations in the Neolithic/Mesolithic (level 9); the Chalcolithic (levels 8, 7 and 6); the Early, Middle and Final Bronze Ages (level 5 and levels 3/4); Iron Age I (level 2); the Roman Age (level 1); and the Middle Ages (level 0) (Carretero et al. 2008; Pérez-Romero et al. 2015). Ongoing archaeological excavations are being carried out in the earliest Neolithic layers located in level 9. The time between the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods has been described as a short hiatus in human occupations of the cave, marked by an archaeologically sterile natural cave entrance and terrigenous silty sediments with abundant pellets. The Chalcolithic stratigraphic units are further divided into three archaeological contexts: the oldest corresponds to a funer- ary context during the early Pre-Bell Beaker Chalcolithic (level 8), an intermediate phase (level 7) during the Pre- Bell Beaker Chalcolithic includes sheepfold activity and the last unit during the Bell Beaker Chalcolithic (level 6) cor- responds to the use of the site for a sheepfold (Pérez-Romero et al. 2017). Finally, the Bronze Age level has been further divided into Early, Middle and Final Bronze Age (levels 3/4 and 5) occupations (Pérez-Romero et al. 2016), all of them from a domestic habitat context (Fig. 1B). Dating Two carbonised Triticum sp. grains and two faunal bone remains from different Neolithic stratigraphic units were dated for this work (Table 2). Chalcolithic and Bronze Age stratigraphic units containing dog bone remains with evidence Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 Page 3 of 21 84 of consumption were previously dated (Carretero et al. 2008; Pérez-Romero et al. 2015) (Table 2). Four animal and human bone remains and one seed from different Chalcolithic strati- graphic units, where dog remains were found, were dated using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) at Beta Analytic Inc. (Miami, Florida) and six charcoal remains, one organic sediment sample and one animal bone from the Bronze Age levels were dated using AMS at different radiocarbon dating laboratories (Table 2). Dates were calculated and calibrated to years cal. BP using OxCal v4.4 software based on the IntCal20 radiocarbon age calibration curve. Materials and methods The identified faunal sample found in the Neolithic to Bronze Age levels from the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site comprises 5431 determinable remains, of which 130 (2.4%) are attributed to dog remains. The dog bones from the Bronze Age were recovered during excavations carried out from 1973 to 1983 by J.M. Apellániz, and were studied at the Museo de Burgos. The Chalcolithic and Neolithic level dog remains were Table 1 Iberian sites from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age where dog bone remains show evidence of being consumed and the types of evidence located on the bones Sites Locality Chronology Cut marks Fresh bone fracture Tooth marks Heating modifica- tions Reference bibliog- raphy Cueva de la Sarsa Valencia Neolithic (without precise chrono- logical context) x López and Molero (1984) Cueva del Nacimiento Jaén Neolithic x (uncertain) Alférez Delgado et al. (1981); García-Moncó (2008) Lloma de Betxí Comunidad Valen- ciana Bronze Age x Sanchis and Sarrión (2004) Pic del Corbs Comunidad Valen- ciana Bronze Age x x Sanchis and Sarrión (2004) Cabezo Redondo Comunidad Valen- ciana Bronze Age x x Sanchis and Sarrión (2004) Los Jovades Comunidad Valen- ciana Eneolithic x x Martínez-Valle (1993) Castellón Alto Granada Argaric x Milz (1986) Terrera del Reloj Granada Argaric x Milz (1986) Palacios Ciudad Real Argaric x Driesch and Boess- neck (1980) Azuer Ciudad Real Argaric x Driesch and Boess- neck (1980) Gatas Turre (Almería) Argaric x Andúgar Martínez (2016) La Bastida Totana (Murcia) Argaric x Andúgar Martínez (2016) Cerro de La Encina Granada Argaric and Final Bronze Age x x Friesch (1987) El Mirador Atapuerca (Burgos) Neolithic, Bronze Age x x x x Martín et al. (2014) Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 84 Page 4 of 21 recovered during recent excavations carried out by the current Atapuerca Research Project, specifically in field work conducted from 2007 to 2018. All the bone remains analysed in this work belong to the Colección Museística de Castilla y León of the Junta de Castilla y León. Anatomical and taxonomic identification The anatomical and taxonomic identification of the remains from El Portalón was carried out using atlases of animal anatomy (Schmid 1972; Pales and Garcia 1981; Barone 1999) and the collection of comparative anatomy at the Centro Mixto UCM-ISCIII de Evolución y Comportamiento Humanos in Madrid. The dog bones were quantified using the following criteria: NISP (number of identified speci- mens) (Binford 1978). The age of death was estimated in accordance with criteria for dental eruption and epiphyseal fusion criteria proposed by Schmid (1972) taking account the MNI (minimum number of individuals; Klein and Uribe 1984). The diagnostic features of canid crania considered in the taxonomical identification were shorter snout, a more pronounced forehead area and a wide palate (Germonpré et al. 2009; Morey 2014; Sablin and Khlopachev 2002). The shortening of the snout in dogs suggests a strong mandi- ble and well-developed carnassial (P4 and M1) (Germonpré et al. 2009), so the measurements of P4 and M1 were taken. Another criterion that is used as evidence of domestication is the crowding of teeth due to the absence of diastema (or shortening of the snout) (Boudadi-Maligne and Escarguel 2014). The taxonomic identification was completed taking measurements of cranial and postcranial bone remains, to discriminate between Canis lupus lupus and Canis lupus familiaris. All measurements were documented using a Syl- vac digital calliper (03.02/SYL-235-F, D, E/681.046–100) to the nearest 0.01 mm, following Driesch (1976). Dental measurements from the length of M1 (carnassial) and mesio-distal diameter of P4 were taken and included within the metrical variation of teeth from recent and Fig. 1 A Geographical location of the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site. B Archaeo-stratigraphic sequence of the southern section of El Portalón de Cueva Mayor (modified from Pérez-Romero et al. 2016) Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 Page 5 of 21 84 archaeological Eurasian dogs and wolves, which were col- lected from bibliographic sources: Benecke (1987); Böyönki (1975); Boudadi-Maligne et al. (2012); Chaix (2000); Clark (1995); Clutton-Brock (1962); Dayan (1994); Davis (1978); Davis (2006); Degerbol (1961); Detry and Cardoso (2010); Dimitrijević and Vuković (2015); Gaudry and Boule (1892); Germonpré et al. (2009); Germonpré et al. (2012); Germon- pré et al. (2015); Germonpré et al. (2017); Harrison (1973); Huxley (1880); Janssens et al. (2019); Jeteiles (1877); Joli- coeur (1959); Kurtén (1968); Lawrence and Reed (1983); Morey (2014); Musil (2000); Napierala and Uerpmann (2012); Nehring (1888); NMBE database n 2217 dogs; Ovo- dov et al. (2011); Pidoplichko et al. (2001); Pionnier-Capitan (2010); Pionnier-Capitan et al. (2011); Rütimeyer (1861); Sablin and Khlopachev (2002); Sanchis and Sarrión (2004); Street (2002); Studer (1901); Tchernov and Valla (1997); Wolfgram (1894). Postcranial measurements were taken and compared with a standard (a complete skeleton of a present-day female wolf from Italy, according to Boschin et al. 2020) using the log ratio methodology. The log ratio technique is used to increase sample size and allow for comparisons to be made between assemblages (Simpson et al. 1960; Meadow 1999). The log ratio is a size index scaling technique, comparing our measurements to the measurements of a standard indi- vidual or population. Taphonomic analysis In order to conduct the taphonomic analysis, we considered all the domestic dog remains (Canis l. familiaris) recovered from the different archaeological levels at the site: Neolithic (NISP = 23), Chalcolithic (NISP = 26) and Bronze Age (NISP = 81). For the microscopic study, a Nikon SMZ800 Stereoscopic zoom microscope and a DINO-LITE digital microscope were used. Photographs were taken with the dig- ital video microscope DINO-LITE AM-TFVW-A (DinoCap- ture 2.0 software). The taphonomic study includes anthropic traces, fracture patterns, carnivore modifications and post- depositional alterations. Stone tool modifications were classified as cut marks (including incisions or slicing cut marks, scrape marks and Table 2 Radiocarbon dates for the levels of the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site. Cal, calibrated Cultural period Dated material Laboratory code Radiocarbonical datation (year cal BP) Dog bone code Dating Neolithic Cattle tooth wk-51513 5570–5320 ATP15.UE507.392 This study Seed Beta-570626 5584–5446 AT16.UE524.302 This study Seed Beta-570625 7169–6988 AT18.UE548.776 This study Horse bone wk-51504 7240–7000 ATP17.UE536.425 This study Early Chalcolithic (Pre-Campani- form): funerary context Human bone Beta-269494 5572–5319 ATP13.UE79a.10 Günther et al. (2015) Animal bone Beta-269494 4430–4290 ATP10.UE 20.62; ATP10.UE20. 55 This study Early Chalcolithic (Pre-Campani- form): stabling context Seed Beta-347580 4957–4821 ATP12.212b.570 Pérez-Romero et al. (2010) Human bone Beta-368289 5211–4866 ATP08.UE23.F10; ATP08. UE23.101 This study Human bone Beta-368290 4957–4821 ATP08.UE21.83 Günther et al. (2015) Final Chalcolithic Human tibia Beta-269494 4423–4158 ATP07UE4-F1 Carretero et al. (2008) Early Bronze Age Tooth Beta-184838 4240–3990 CMI-A6-72–41; CMI-A10-73–6; CMI-A8-73–7; CMI-A8-73–8; CMI-A8-73–9; CMI-A8-73–10; CMI-A8-73–12; CMI-B2-78–9; CMI-B4-84–2; CMI-B6-87–3; CMI-C2-92–1; CMI-C2-96–1; CMI-D2-104–10 Carretero et al. (2008) Charcoal Beta-184839 4230–3980 Charcoal Beta-184843 4240–3850 Tooth Beta-224079 4140–3890 Charcoal Beta-153362 4080–3840 Charcoal Beta-153361 4140–3900 Charcoal Beta-212188 3860–3650 Middle Bronze Age Organic sediment Beta-153360 3710–3390 CMI-A6-41–1; CMI-A6-46–2; CMI-C4-47–3; CMI-A6-48–4; CMI-D2-48–3; CMI-A8-49–3; CMI-D4-50–1; CMI-A8-51–1; CMI-C2-55–1; CMI-C4-63–7; CMI-C4-63–10; CMI-B2-64–3; CMI-B2-64–4; CMI-B2-64–8; CMI-B2-64–2; CMI-A8-65–1 Carretero et al. (2008) Bone Beta-222336 3980 -3700 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 84 Page 6 of 21 chop marks) and percussion marks (percussion pits, con- choidal scars and flakes, and adhered flakes) (Blumenschine et al. 1996; Blumenschine and Selvaggio 1988; Cáceres et al. 2007; Capaldo and Blumenschine 1994; Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al. 2015; Saladié et al. 2012; Shipman and Rose 1983). The location of cut marks was recorded—especially the muscle insertion areas or on tendons or ligaments—since these can be used as criteria for distinguishing different butchery activities (Binford 1981; Saladié et al. 2012; White 1992). In order to study the burned bones, we followed the stages defined by Stiner et al. (1995). Evidence of boiling was identified on the basis of the smoother, lighter and more transparent surfaces as opposed to the unboiled bones, as defined by Botella et al. (2000). In order to analyse the breakage patterns, we focused on long bone fragments following the methodology proposed by Villa and Mahieu (1991) and Sala et al. (2015) in terms of fracture outline (longitudinal, transverse or oblique/curved), fracture angle (right or oblique), fracture edge (smooth or jagged), shaft circumference (1: less than half of the cir- cumference; 2: more than half of the circumference; and 3: complete circumference) and shaft fragment (1: less than 1/4 of the total diaphysis; 2: between 1/4 and 1/2 of the total diaphysis; 3: between 1/2 and 3/4 of the diaphysis; and 4: increased from 3/4 of the diaphysis). In addition to these features, the presence or absence of peeling was also considered. Peeling is defined as ‘a roughened surface with parallel grooves or fibrous texture’ (White 1992) produced when breaking the bone by bend- ing the pieces with the hands or by cheek-tooth chewing the bones and bending with the hands (Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews 2011; Saladié et al. 2013). Pickering et al. (2013) distinguished three types of peeling: (i) classic peeling following the definition proposed by White (1992); (ii) general peeling defined as ‘an area of the whole dor- sal or ventral cortex of a rib is peeled backed for some length, revealing the internal trabeculae of the rib’; and (iii) incipient peeling, a type of peeling ‘where a strip of lamella is only partially peeled back against the rib shaft, not fully removed from the specimen’. Classic and general peeling are considered particular features of anthropogenic breakage (Pickering et al. 2013). Tooth marks on bone surfaces were classified as pits, punctures, furrowing, scores and dissolution due to gas- tric acids. Punctures, scores and pits were measured (length and width) in accordance with previous stud- ies (Domínguez-Rodrigo and Piqueras 2003; Sala and Arsuaga 2018; Sala et al. 2014a; Selvaggio and Wilder 2001). The length and breadth of tooth marks were meas- ured using DINO-LITE digital microscope software tools. Tooth mark measurements were compared with neo- taphonomic experimental assemblages of carnivores and humans (Delaney-Rivera et  al. 2009; Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews 2011; Sala and Arsuaga 2018; Saladié et al. 2013). Recent studies (Andrés et  al. 2012; Sala et  al. 2014a, 2014b) show that tooth pit length on cortical sur- faces is the best indicator of the taxa responsible for the tooth marks. For this reason, we will focus mainly on this variable when comparing the samples. For the univariate analysis, we performed a Welch test, comparing all pos- sible pairs of samples to determine which differed sig- nificantly. Hominin tooth marks were identified following the criteria of Saladié et al. (2013), Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews (2011), Pickering et al. (2013) and Rodríguez Hidalgo et al. (2015), based on their morphological fea- tures, location and dimensions and their relationship with other anthropic modifications. In addition to the conspicu- ous marks, traces of the dissolution caused by gastric acids produced during the consumption of bone fragments are considered. Some carnivores (and also birds) are able to swallow bone fragments. These splinters can be recovered from faeces and they are also the product of regurgitation (Sala and Arsuaga, 2018). Bones affected by acid-etching display characteristic features described previously by Sutcliffe (1970), such as scalloping of the bone surface, presence of holes and/or fine and sharp edges. Table 3 Metrical data (L, length = mesio-distal diameter) of M1 and P4 of Canis from the different levels of the El Portalón site M1 Length (in mm) P4 Length (in mm) Bronze Age CMI.A6.48.4 21.54 Early Bronze Age CMI.B6.88.1 20.98 CMI.D2.87 18.8 Middle Bronze Age CMI.C4.53.2 21.06 ATP17.2003 N.825 16.9 CMI.A8.51.1 20.03 CMI.B2.63.5 18.02 CMI.C2.63.2 17.02 CMI.C2.74 18.8 CMI.B2.67 15.91 CMI.B2.64.2 17.39 CMI.A8.51.5 19.16 Neolithic ATP16.UE516.37 15.23 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 Page 7 of 21 84 Results Anatomical and taxonomic identification The M1 lengths of the canids from El Portalón (Table 3) fall within the metrical range of dogs from the different archaeological sites included in Janssens et al. (2019), within a variation ranging from 17 to 25.3 mm for the lower first molar. The canid P4 lengths from El Portalón (Table 3) also fall within the metrical range of archaeological dogs, with a variation ranging from 14 to 21.8 mm for the upper four premolars. There is no overlap with the P4 mesio-distal diameter (22.5–29.2 mm) from fossil wolves and dogs, according to Janssens et al. (2019). The data set of the postcranial elements is included in Supplementary Table S1 and Supplementary Figure S1. We can observe that the population of canids from the Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Bronze Age at El Portalón is smaller than the standard population (Supplementary Figure S1); therefore, the canid bone remains from the El Portalón site belong to Canis l. familiaris. Thus, the morphology and metrical characteristics (Table 3; Supplementary Table S1 and Supplementary Figure S1) indicate that dogs were present in the Neo- lithic, the Pre-Beaker Chalcolithic (funerary and sheepfold phases), the Beaker Chalcolithic (sheepfold) and the Early, Middle and Final Bronze Age levels at the El Portalón site. Twenty-three dog remains were recovered from the Neo- lithic level, 26 from the Chalcolithic (14 from a Pre-Beaker Chalcolithic funerary context, 10 from a Pre-Beaker Chalco- lithic stabling context and two from the Beaker Chalcolithic) and 81 from the Bronze Age (28 from the Early Bronze Age, 47 from the Middle Bronze Age and six from the Final Bronze Age) (Table 4). There is no context from which dog remains were recovered where they exceeded 6% of NISP (the identified species) (Table 4). From the Neolithic, at least two adults (fused ana- tomical elements), including the burnt phalanx (ATP17. UE536.425), the mandible (ATP15.UE507.392) and one juvenile (unfused elements), were found. From the Pre- Bell Beaker Chalcolithic (sheepfold context), at least two individuals were recovered (one unfused distal part of a tibia: ATPʹ08.UE21.83, suggesting an individual less than 15 months of age, and one fused ulna ATPʹ08.UE23. F10 + ATPʹ08.UE23.101, suggesting an individual older than 15 months of age). From the Pre-Bell Beaker Chal- colithic (funerary context), at least two adult individuals were recovered, which were calculated using left humeri. From the Bell Beaker Chalcolithic habitational context, the humerus found belongs to an individual over 6 months old. From the Early Bronze Age, two cranium fragments (zygo- matic bones: CMI-A8-73–10; CMI-B2-79–2) were identified Table 4 Number of identified specimens (NISP) of each taxon at the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site. Percentages of number of identified specimens (NISP%) indicated in parenthesis NISP (%NISP) Final Bronze Age Middle Bronze Age Early Bronze Age Bell Beaker (habitat) Pre-Bell Beaker (habitat) Pre-Bell Beaker (funerary) Neolithic Bos taurus 99 (34.74) 309 (37.64) 245 (26.4) 285 (28.85) 217 (29.25) 184 (16.49) 146 (25.75) Total ovicaprines 124 (43.51) 262 (31.91) 338 (36.42) 609 (61.64) 392 (52.83) 724 (64.87) 182 (32.1) Sus sp. 29 (10.18) 58 (7.06) 84 (9.05) 39 (3.95) 78 (10.51) 112 (10.04) 66 (11.64) Equus sp. 21 (7.37) 98 (11.94) 162 (17.46) 19 (1.92) 11 (1.48) 17 (1.52) 0 Bos cf. primigenius 0 1 (0.12) 0 1 (0.1) 3 (0.4) 0 8 (1.41) Sus scrofa 0 0 3 (0.32) 1 (0.1) 3 (0.4) 0 0 Equus ferus 0 0 0 0 0 0 89 (15.7) Cervus elaphus 0 15 (1.83) 11 (1.19) 5 (0.51) 1 (0.13) 11 (0.99) 24 (4.23) Capreolus capreo- lus 0 1 (0.12) 1 (0.11) 0 3 (0.4) 2 (0.18) 4 (0.7) Canis familiaris 6 (2.21) 47 (5.72) 28 (3.02) 2 (0.2) 10 (1.35) 14 (1.25) 23 (4.05) Vulpes vulpes 0 0 6 (0.65) 0 1 (0.13) 1 (0.09) 0 Mustela sp. 0 0 0 0 0 2 (0.18) 0 Carnivora indet 0 0 0 0 4 (0.54) 4 (0.36) 0 Leporidae indet 6 (2.21) 30 (3.65) 50 (5.38) 14 (1.42) 14 (1.89) 23 (2.06) 11 (1.94) Chelonia indet 0 0 0 0 1 (0.13) 5 (0.45) 0 Avian remains 0 0 0 12 (1.21) 4 (0.54) 14 (1.25) 14 (2.47) Fish 0 0 0 1 (0.1) 0 3 (0.27) 0 285 821 928 988 742 1116 567 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 84 Page 8 of 21 as one juvenile (unfused) and one adult (fused) individual. From the Middle Bronze Age, six maxilla fragments with permanent teeth (CMI-B2-64–2; CMI-C2-63–2; CMI-B4- 41; CMI-B2-63–5; ATP18.2003 N.825) were identified and determined to be from at least five adult individuals. A meta- podial (CMI-C2-33–2) was recovered from the Final Bronze Age and was fused, so this individual was over 6 months of age. It may belong to the same individual whose other anatomical elements were found in this level (see Table 5). Taphonomic analysis Neolithic (Fig. 2) From the Neolithic, a metacarpal III (AT16.UE524.302) has been documented with evidence of gastric acid dissolution (Table 6). One proximal phalanx (ATP17.UE536.425) and a mandible (ATP15.UE507.392) show evidence of burning on the proximal surface of the phalanx and the almost com- plete surface of the mandible. Following the burning damage categories of Stiner et al. (1995), the phalanx corresponds to stage 1 (less than half the surface is carbonised) and the mandible corresponds to stage 2 (more than half the surface is carbonised). None of the bone remains from the Neolithic layers dis- plays butchery evidence such as cut marks. The reduced bone sample, together with the absence of conspicuous tooth marks, necessary for extrapolating useful metric data, hinders the accurate identification of the inter- vention of small carnivores and/or humans. Nevertheless, the intervention of later carnivores is demonstrated by the presence of bones with evidence of digestion. Chalcolithic The dog remain analysis from the Chalcolithic period was conducted in accordance with the archaeological context from which they were recovered: (i) Early (Pre-Bell Beaker) Chalcolithic corresponding to a funerary context; (ii) Early (Pre-Bell Beaker) Chalcolithic corresponding to a sheep- fold and habitational context; and (iii) Late (Bell Beaker) Chalcolithic corresponding to a sheepfold. The results of the taphonomic analyses are detailed in Table 6 and Fig. 3. Within the funerary context from the Pre-Bell Beaker Chalcolithic period, 10 dog remains were analysed and half of them display cut marks (slicing marks). In addition, tooth marks, burning and intentional breakage by humans (i.e. peeling) have been observed on these bone remains (Table 6). Only one bone displays conspicuous tooth marks that provided metric data (Table 7) and triangular-shaped morphology compatible with human tooth marks (Fernán- dez-Jalvo and Andrews 2011; Saladié et al. 2013). Similar frequencies of cut-marked bones are represented in combination with tooth marks and fresh bone break- age from the Pre-Bell Beaker Chalcolithic sheepfold and habitational contexts (Table 6). The tooth mark dimensions (Table 7), their triangular- or crescent-shaped morphol- ogy (Fig. 3), which was described previously as a diag- nostic feature for human tooth marks by Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews (2011) and Saladié et al. (2013), together with other anthropic traces, all suggest that they are indeed human tooth marks, indicating that ‘sporadic’ consumption of dogs took place in funerary and sheepfold-habitational contexts during the Early Chalcolithic. The locations of the cut marks from the Chalcolithic in both cases, the funerary and sheepfold contexts, are mainly concentrated in the diaphysis of long bone and ribs, though slicing marks have been identified additionally in the inter- tubercular groove of the humerus (Table 6). This indicates that defleshing, periosteum removal, evisceration and dis- articulation took place amongst the butchering processes in these periods. Evidence of fire modification is present on a burned sur- face of an ulna (ATPʹ08.UE23.101), which appears to be an isolated incident, as well as two dog remains that show characteristics typical of boiling (Table 6). Within the herding and domestic habitat from the Bell Beaker Chalcolithic period, one bone shows fresh fractures compatible with human activity (Table 6). Bronze Age The material from the Bronze Age is the most abundant out of all the sequences. Separate analyses were performed for the three periods represented: the Early, Middle and Final Bronze. These provide frequencies of anthropic traces that are similar throughout the three periods. Cut marks mainly comprise slicing marks, but chop and percussion marks have been documented as well and are present in 25% and 27% of the Early and Middle Bronze Age periods, respectively. Fresh bone fractures, in some cases considered intentional breakage (i.e. peeling), have been documented in Early, Mid- dle and Final Bronze Age periods in 35.7%, 25.5% and 25% of specimens, respectively. Tooth marks are only present in Early and Middle periods with frequencies of 21.4% and 17.6%, respectively, and in some cases are compatible with human tooth marks. Lastly, by taking into consideration the burned and boiled bones, fire modification has been documented in the three periods as well, with a significantly higher frequency dur- ing the Middle Bronze Age period (25%, 81.25% and 25% for the Early, Middle and Final Bronze units, respectively). The detailed data regarding anthropic traces are portrayed in Table 6 and Fig. 4. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 Page 9 of 21 84 Table 5 NISP and brief description of dog bone remains within the different levels of the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site. AD, adult (fused bones or permanent teeth); JUV, juvenile (unfused bones or decidual teeth) Nº Cultural level Dog bone code Anatomical element Age 1 Final Bronze Age CMI-C4-13–6 Maxilla + P2 + canine - 2 CMI-D2-11–4 Occipital bone - 3 CMI-C2-33–2 Metapodial AD 4 CMI-D2-22–2 Cuboid AD 5 CMI-D4-35 Tooth - 6 CMI-D4-38 Canine - 1 Middle Bronze Age CMI-D2-48–3 Atlas AD 2 CMI-A8-65–1 Ulna AD 3 CMI-A8-51–1 Hemimandible AD 4 CMI-A8-65–2 Proximal phalanx AD 5 CMI-A8-49–3 Atlas - 6 CMI-243 Tooth - 7 CMI-B2-64–2 Maxilla AD 8 CMI-49 Atlas 9 CMI-A6-41–1 Ulna AD 10 CMI-D4-50–1 Ulna AD 11 CMI-A6-45–6 Tibia AD 12 CMI-B2-64–3 Cranium AD 13 CMI-C4-63–7 Vertebrae AD 14 CMI-A6-46–2 Cervical vertebrae AD 15 CMI-A6-48–4 Mandible - 16 CMI-A6-58–5 Cervical vertebrae AD 17 CMI-C4-53–4 Vertebrae JUV 18 CMI-C4-63–10 Cervical vertebrae AD 19 CMI-B2-63–6 Rib AD 20 CMI-B2-64–4 Rib AD 21 CMI-A4-54–3 Fibula AD 22 CMI-B2-64–3 Atlas AD 23 CMI-A4-48–2 Metacarpian II AD 24 CMI-B2-63–7 Proximal phalanx AD 25 CMI-C2-55–1 Proximal phalanx AD 26 CMI-B2-64–6 Metacarpian III AD 27 CMI-B2-64–8 Calcaneus AD 28 CMI-A6-45–2 Scapholunar AD 29 CMI-C4-47–3 Cuboid AD 30 CMI-53 Mandible - 31 CMI-C2-63–2 Maxilla AD 32 CMI-B4-41 Maxilla AD 33 CMI-B2-63–5 Maxilla AD 34 CMI-B2-64–6 Proximal phalanx AD 35 CMI-C6-43–2 Mt IV AD 36 CMI-A4-53–5 Metapodial AD 37 CMI-B4-70–4 Cranium - 38 CMI-C2-74 Maxilla AD 39 CMI-A6-41–1 Ulna - 40 CMI-B2-64–9 Metatarsal AD 41 CMI-A6-61–5 Tibia AD 42 CMI-D2-69–4 Proximal phalanx AD 43 CMI-A10-64–5 Metapodial AD 44 CMI-A2-64–2 Ulna - 45 ATP18.2003 N.825 Maxilla + P2,P3 left AD 46 ATP17.2003 N.1514 Metapodial AD 47 ATP18.2003 N.863 Tibia AD Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 84 Page 10 of 21 Table 5 (continued) Nº Cultural level Dog bone code Anatomical element Age 1 Early Bronze Age CMI-B2-96–2 Metacarpian III AD 2 CMI-A8-73–8 Occipital bone - 3 CMI-A8-73–9 Cranium fragment - 4 CMI-A8-73–10 Zygomatic bone (right) JUV 5 CMI-A8-73–7 Parietal bone - 6 CMI-A8-73–12 Cranium fragment - 7 CMI-A8-80–2 Atlas AD 8 CMI-83 Tooth - 9 CMI-C2-96–1 Scapula - 10 CMI-B6-87–3 Tibia - 11 CMI-C2-92–1 Humerus - 12 CMI-B2-78–9 Calcaneus AD 13 CMI-A6-73–22 Medium phalanx AD 14 CMI-B6-88–1 Hemimandible AD 15 CMI-D2-87 Hemimandible AD 16 CMI-B2-79–2 Zygomatic bone (right) AD 17 CMI-A6-72–93 Cranium - 18 CMI-104 Lumbar vertebra JUV 19 CMI-B4-84–2 Vertebrae JUV 20 CMI-B2-79–3 Metatarsian AD 21 CMI-C4-77–7 Metapodial - 22 CMI-B2-80–3 Metapodial - 23 CMI-C2-99–1 Metapodial - 24 CMI-C2-90 Proximal phalanx AD 25 CMI-C2-79–1 Proximal phalanx AD 26 CMI-A6-72–41 Ulna AD 27 CMI-D2-104–10 Coxae AD 28 CMI-A10-73–6 Coxae AD 1 B-B-C habitat ATPʹ07.L45.UE4.F1 Humerus AD 2 ATP07-M45.UE4.F2 Tooth fragment - 1 Pre-Bell Beaker Chalcolithic (funerary context) ATPʹ10.UE26.466 Humerus AD 2 ATPʹ10.UE26.62 Coxae AD 3 ATPʹ10.UE26.254 Tibia AD 4 ATPʹ10.UE26.287 Rib - 5 ATPʹ08.UE20.F183 Humerus AD 6 ATPʹ10.UE20.55 Femur JUV 7 ATP13.UE79a.10 Metacarpian - 8 ATP13.UE79.31 Femur JUV 9 ATP.UE79.37c Rib - 10 ATP.UE79.37d Rib - 11 ATP.UE79.37f Rib - 12 ATP12.UE77.1180 Proximal phalanx - 13 ATP12.UE77.1181 Metatarsian IV - 14 ATP12.UE77.1211 Metatarsian V - Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 Page 11 of 21 84 The cut marks from the Bronze Age have been observed on all anatomical parts and are associated with the removal of soft tissues (flesh, periosteum, viscera and scalp), thus indicating butchering processes such as skinning, defleshing, evisceration and disarticulation (Table 7). Tooth mark dimensions are represented in Table 7. The dimensions of tooth pits on the cortical surfaces corre- sponding to the Middle Bronze Age (the best represented period in terms of the number of measurements) do not differ statistically (p < 0.05) from the human tooth mark size data provided by Saladié et al. (2013), Delaney-Rivera et al. (2009), Romero et al. (2016) and Sala and Conard (2016). However, there are statistical differences regarding the large carnivore tooth pits, including for the wild can- ids (wolves), when compared with the data from Sala and Arsuaga (2018) and Sala et al. (2014a). Nevertheless, in some cases we cannot rule out the secondary intervention of small carnivores, such as foxes or dogs. Actually, in cra- nial remain CMI-B2-64–3, it is possible to observe a tooth pit (perhaps created by a small carnivore) superimposed on a slicing mark (Fig. 4). Moreover, rodent activity has been documented for one occipital fragment (CMI-A8-73–8). The fracture patterns are dominated by oblique angles and smooth surfaces, typical of fresh bone breakage (peri- mortem). Furthermore, in some cases, there are traces of intentional breakage by humans such as peeling and percus- sion marks (Table 6). Table 5 (continued) Nº Cultural level Dog bone code Anatomical element Age 1 Pre-Bell Beaker Chalcolithic (habitational context) ATPʹ08. UE21.97 Maxilla JUV 2 ATPʹ08.UE21.83 Tibia JUV 3 ATPʹ08.UE23.F10 + ATPʹ08.UE23.101 Ulna AD 4 ATPʹ10.UE23.248 Long bone - 5 ATPʹ10.UE52.15 Rib - 6 ATPʹ12.capa212a.523 Mandible - 7 ATPʹ12.capa212a.528 Rib - 8 ATPʹ12.capa212a.570 Humerus - 9 ATPʹ12.capa212b.593 Ulna - 10 ATPʹ12.UE74.616 Tooth - 1 Neolithic ATP15.UE507.392 Mandible AD 2 ATP16.UE524.282 Proximal phalanx (half part) - 3 AT16.UE524.302 Metacarpian III AD 4 ATP16.UE530.549 Torachic vertebra AD 5 ATP16.UE530.740 Proximal phalanx AD 6 ATP17.UE530.2124 Metatarsian IV AD 7 ATP17.UE530.2365 Cervical vertebra (VII) JUV 8 ATP18.UE530.562 Thoracic vertebra JUV 9 ATP19.UE530.437 Carpal bone - 10 ATP17.UE530H2b.833 Caudal vertebra JUV 11 ATP17.UE530H2b.1049 Proximal phalanx AD 12 ATP17.UE532.40 Caudal vertebra AD 13 ATP17.UE532.113 Distal metapodial + proximal part of phalanx JUV 14 ATP17.UE534.137 Calcaneus and tarsals JUV 15 ATP17.UE534.138 Metatarsian II + unfused epiphysis JUV 16 ATP17.UE534.139 Metatarsian III + unfused epiphysis + proximal phalanx JUV 17 ATP17.UE534.140 Metatarsian IV + unfused epiphysis + proximal phalanx + sesamoid JUV 18 ATP17.534.141 Metatarsian V JUV 19 ATP17.534.142 Medial phalanx JUV 20 ATP17.UE536.425 Proximal phalanx AD 21 ATP17.UE537.588 Metacarpian V JUV 22 ATP17.UE543.2450 rib JUV 23 ATP18.UE543.69 Atlas JUV Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 84 Page 12 of 21 Discussion The role of dogs throughout Prehistory has changed over time. Dogs probably had considerable symbolic signifi- cance in the lives of hunter-gatherers, at least from the Mesolithic onwards and from the Mesolithic onwards (Larsson 1990). This special role is confirmed in the Iberian Peninsula, where, for instance, an almost com- plete dog skeleton was found close to human skeletons at Cabeço da Arruda, the final Mesolithic Muge shell mid- dens (Portugal), suggesting it was buried intentionally (Detry and Cardoso 2010). From the second half of the 5th millennium cal BC, dogs played a very important role in the symbolic world. Dogs in the Neolithic (Detry and Cardoso 2010) are abundant, mainly in funerary contexts (Moreno-García 2003; Albizuri et al. 2019) (see Fig. 5 for location of the sites). It is in the subsequent Chalcolithic that their occurrence in the archaeological record begins to be abundant enough to draw conclusions as to morphology and dimensions. Dogs in funerary contexts are also very frequent throughout the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages (see Fig. 5). There is also evidence that they served as draught animals, and on some occasions, they were consumed (Grandal-d’Anglade et al. 2019). Evidences of dog consumption, including just cut and burn marks on dog bone remains, have been identified in European sites from the Upper Paleolithic (Pont d’Ambon; Pionnier-Capitan et al. 2011), the Neolithic and the Bronze Age in Hungary (Vretemark and Sten 2010) and the Iron Age in Slovakia (Chrószcz et al. 2013), the British Isles (Hambleton, 2008) and Gaul (Méniel 2006; Horard-Herbin 2014). In the Iberian Peninsula (Table 1; Fig. 5), these evidences (cut and burn marks) of dog consumption have been identified during the Neolithic (La Sarsa; López and Molero 1984), as well as during the Bronze Age at sites in Valencia (Sanchis and Sarrión 2004), Castellón Alto and Terrera del Reloj (Granada; Milz 1986), Los Palacios and Azuer (Ciudad Real; Driesch Von Den and Boessneck, 1980) and Cerro de La Encina (Granada; Friesch 1987) (Table 1; Fig. 5). Consequently, in the Iberian Peninsula it seems that a change occurred in the role of dogs from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age, since the consumption of dogs was rare during the Neolithic and became more frequent during the Bronze Age. Fig. 2 The Neolithic dog remains from the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site. Photography and different views of fire alterations on the proximal phalanx ATP17.UE536.425 (A) (photo taken by Javier Trueba and the mandible ATP15.UE507.392 (B)). Scale bars 2 cm Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 Page 13 of 21 84 In the Iberian Peninsula, the Holocene archaeological sites of El Portalón de Cueva Mayor and El Mirador, in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos), are the only ones in which human tooth marks have been documented on dog bone remains (Martín et al. 2014), unlike the rest of the peninsu- lar sites with evidence of anthropic processing of dog bone remains, in which cuts and butchering marks are identified, as well as cremation features. While this last evidence is compatible with ritual offerings, the cases of the Sierra de Atapuerca sites clearly confirm the consumption of dogs at least from the Chalcolithic and probably from the Neolithic as well. In the case of the Neolithic level from El Portalón, although the fire modifications on the phalanx and mandible do not constitute clear anthropic processing, they do sug- gest possible human consumption due to the character of the stratigraphical units where these bone remains (UE 507 and UE 536) were found; the burnt dog bones were recov- ered from activity floors, formed as the result of domestic Table 6 Summary of the anthropic traces documented on dog bones from the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site. Cut marks: SL, slic- ing marks; SC, scraping marks; PM, percussion marks; CHM, chop marks. Tooth marks: PT, pits; SC, scores; FW, furrowing. Fire modi- fication: BR, burned; BL, boiled. YES = presence; NO = absence Cultural period Level Context Dog bone code Anatomical element Cut marks Fresh bone fracture Tooth marks Fire modi- fications Neolithic Neolithic Habitat context ATP17.UE536.425 I phalanx - - PT BR ATP15.UE507.392 Mandible - YES - BR AT16.UE524.302 Metacarpal - YES DG BR Chalcolithic Pre-Bell Beaker Chal- colithic Funerary context ATP10UE26.466 Humerus SL YES PT, SC NO ATP10.UE20.62 Innominate SL YES NO NO ATP10.UE26.287 Rib SL,SC PEELING NO NO ATP10.UE20.55 Femur SL YES FW BL ATP13.79a.10 Metapodial SL YES PT NO Habitat context ATP08.UE23.F10 ATP08.UE23.101 Ulna SL YES PT BR ATP08.UE21.83 Tibia SL YES PT, FW BL ATP10.UE52.15 Rib SL PEELING NO BL ATP12.Layer 212b. 570 Humerus SL YES NO NO Bell Beaker Chalcolithic Habitat context ATP07.UE4.F1 Humerus NO YES NO NO Bronze Age Early Bronze Age CMI-A8-73–9 Cranial fragment NO YES NO BR CMI-A8-73–8 Occipital SL NO NO BR CMI-A8-73–10 Zygomatic NO YES NO BR CMI-A8-73–7 Parietal fragment NO NO NO BR CMI-A8-73–12 Cranial fragment NO YES NO BR CMI-C2-96–1 Scapula SL YES NO NO CMI-B6-87–3 Tibia PM YES NO NO CMI-C2-92–1 Humerus SL YES PT NO CMI-B2-78–9 Astragalus NO NO NO BR CMI-B4-84–2 Vertebra NO NO NO BR CMI-A6-72–41 Ulna SL YES NO NO CMI-D2-104–10 Innominate SL YES PT, FW NO CMI-A10-73–6 Innominate SL YES PT NO Middle Bronze Age CMI-A8-65–1 Ulna PM YES PT, FW BL CMI-A8-51–1 Mandible SL, SM PEELING PT, SC BL CMI-A6-48–4 Mandible SL NO NO NO CMI-A8-49–3 Atlas CHM NO NO NO CMI-A6-41–1 Ulna SL YES NO BL CMI-D4-50–1 Ulna SL YES NO BR CMI-B2-64–3 Cranial -Frontal SL YES PT BL CMI-C4-63–7 Vertebra SL PEELING NO BL CMI-A6-46–2 Vertebra SL NO NO BL CMI-C4-63–10 Vertebra NO NO NO BL CMI-B2-64–4 Rib SL NO NO BL CMI-B2-64–3 Atlas SL NO NO NO CMI-C2-55–1 Phalanx NO NO NO BR CMI-B2-64–8 Calcaneum SL NO NO BL CMI-C4-47–3 Cuboid NO NO NO BR CMI-D2-48–3 Atlas SL NO NO NO CMI-B2-64–2 Ulna SM NO NO BL Late Bronze Age CMI-C4-13–6 Maxilla NO YES NO NO CMI-D2-11–4 Occipital NO NO NO BR Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 84 Page 14 of 21 activities inside the cave, cooking near several fireplaces and other consumed domestic animal bones. The oldest Neolithic dog bone from the Neolithic level at the El Portalón site was found in UE 536 (Table 2) and dated 7240–7000 cal BP. This bone remain (ATP17.UE536.425) shows fire alteration and pits (Table 6) on its surface and is included within a domestic context. If these alterations are interpreted as indicative of human consumption, this bone, together with another one with similar evidence from the Neolithic at the nearby El Mirador site (MIR19: 7180–6970 cal BP) (Martín et al. 2014), would constitute the oldest Holocene evidence of cynophagy in the Iberian Peninsula. The consumption of dogs at El Portalón is not decisive in terms of subsistence during the sequence of the El Portalón site, due to the low frequency of dog bones (less than 10% of NISP per level) in comparison with the high percentage of NISP of ovicaprines, bovines and pigs (Table 4) (Galindo- Pellicena et  al. 2017, 2019, 2020; Francés-Negro et  al. 2021). No faunal remains present pathologies that would indicate a health risk for the humans who lived there (just pathologies in cattle livestock from the Chalcolithic habi- tat context were detected due to the domestication process: Galindo-Pellicena et al. 2017). In terms of the age of the dogs when they were slaughtered, the vast majority of dogs from El Portalón are adults and not juveniles (11:3). Taking into account the variety and quantity of animals available at the site and the dogs’ age of death (not appropriate for eat- ing, according to the Preclassic Mayan site in Belize, where dogs were deliberately bred and slaughtered for consumption around the first year of life: Clutton-Brock 1994), the dogs do not appear to be an effective meat source. Our obser- vations could indicate sporadic dog consumption at the El Portalón site. Therefore, the cynophagy in the domestic, funerary and sheepfold context from the Neolithic, Pre-Bell Beaker Chal- colithic, Bell Beaker Chalcolithic and Bronze Age levels at the El Portalón sites could be caused by the provision Fig. 3 Anthropic modifications on the Chalcolithic dog bone remains from the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site. A Cut marks (white arrows) and human tooth marks (black arrow) on the tibia ATP08. UE21.83 from the Pre-Bell Beaker Chalcolithic sheepfold context. B Slicing marks on the humerus ATP10.466 from the Pre-Bell Beaker funerary context. C Slicing marks (white arrows) in combination with human tooth marks (black arrow) and burning (red arrow) on an ulna (ATP08.UE23.F10 + 101). D Peeling (blue arrows) and slicing marks (white arrows) on two ribs from the Pre-Beaker Chalcolithic funerary (ATP10.UE26.287) and sheepfold (ATP10.UE52.15) contexts. Scale bars 2 cm Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 Page 15 of 21 84 of extra food at sporadic periods of shortage or starvation (Beech 1995; Murphy 2001) or sporadic periods of dog con- sumption as a delicacy (Hayden 1990), as proposed in the nearby El Mirador site (Martín et al. 2014). Nevertheless, in the case of the Pre-Bell Beaker Chal- colithic funerary context from El Portalón, a skeleton of a buried child was recovered with possible evidence of rickets and scurvy (Castilla et al. 2014). Three dog remains (IV and V metatarsals and one first phalanx) in anatomical connec- tion (Pérez-Romero et al. 2017) were also found close to this burial. This possible association could suggest a symbolic offering in this funerary context (Pérez-Romero et al. 2017), with a portion of a dog either buried with the human or related to a ritual of commensalism (Larsson 1990). The study of the Chalcolithic inhabitants’ dental micro- wear from El Portalón (García-González et al. 2019) indi- cates that their diet was based mainly on meat consumption (higher relative frequency of enamel vertical scratches than horizontal ones). In this context, the observation of dog meat consumption at this level is not out of the ordinary. This heavy meat consumption could be due to the higher intensi- fication of animal husbandry at the expense of agriculture, as suggested by García-González et al. (2019), and may be related with the climatic conditions during the Chalcolithic, which were relatively dry, and with a decrease in the wood- lands and nitrophilous taxa, together with a slight increase in xeric taxa, documented by Martínez-Pillado et al. (2014). Perhaps, these arid conditions could have increased the fre- quency of shortage, famine and finally starvation events, making small and not very profitable dogs a necessary resource of food. Although it is still difficult to give a satisfactory interpre- tation, it is obvious that dogs were consumed at El Portalón during most of the Holocene, as suggested by the anthropo- genic marks on the dog bone surfaces found at the site. And together with El Mirador, cynophagy is confirmed at least from Neolithic to Bronze Age in the Sierra de Atapuerca and by extension in the Iberian Peninsula. Conclusions The taxonomical analysis indicates that 130 Canis l. famil- iaris bone remains were present from the Neolithic (23), Chalcolithic (26) and Bronze Age (81) units at the El Por- talón de Cueva Mayor site. Signs of anthropic activity, such as cut marks, human tooth marks, intentional breakage and fire modifications, suggest sporadic consumption of domestic dogs during the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age and probably during the Neo- lithic. These anthropic signs have been identified in bone remains recovered from different archaeological contexts, such as domestic, sheepfold and funerary contexts. These taphonomic evidences suggest that domestic dogs were, at least occasionally, also part of the diet of the humans who inhabited the El Portalón site; fact could be due to shortage, famine or the consideration of dog meat as a delicacy. The El Portalón de Cueva Mayor and El Mirador Holo- cene archaeological sites from Sierra de Atapuerca con- stitute the oldest evidence of cynophagy in the Iberian Peninsula, and record the continued consumption of dogs Table 7 Tooth mark dimensions of the domestic dog sample from the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site. N, number of cases; Min, minimum; Max, maximum; Std. Dev, standard deviation N Min Max Mean Std. dev Pre-Bell Beaker Chalcolithic-funerary Pits on cortical Length 1 - - 1.78 - Breadth 1 - - 1.53 - Pre-Bell Beaker Chalcolithic-habitat Pits on cortical Length 4 1.1 1.91 1.6 0.4 Breadth 4 1.02 1.64 1.4 0.3 Early Bronze Age Pits on thin cortical Length 11 0.75 2.29 1.5 0.5 Breadth 11 0.6 1.7 1.1 0.3 Scores on thin cortical Breadth 3 0.3 0.66 0.5 0.2 Middle Bronze Age Pits on cortical Length 18 0.76 2.86 1.5 0.6 Breadth 18 0.53 2.28 1.1 0.4 Pits on thin cortical Length 17 1.08 2.45 1.7 0.4 Breadth 17 0.67 1.78 1.4 0.3 Scores on cortical Breadth 1 - - 0.94 - Scores on thin cortical Breadth 2 0.7 0.83 0.76 - Scores on cancellous Breadth 1 - - 0.86 - Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 84 Page 16 of 21 over an extensive period of time (from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age) in a single region within the Iberian Peninsula. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- tary material available at https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s12520- 022- 01522-5. Acknowledgements We extend our sincerest gratitude to the team at the UCM-ISCIII Centre of Human Evolution and Behaviour, Fun- dación Atapuerca, and at the Laboratory of Human Evolution at the University of Burgos (UBU) for their technical support throughout our research and excavation work. Special thanks are also due to the Portalón team for their support and efforts throughout the course of the fieldwork. We are very grateful to Marta Negro Cobo, Director of the Museum of Burgos, for providing us access to the archaeological samples from the prior Portalón excavations. Funding Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature. This study was financed by the Minis- terio de Economía y Competitividad, Spain Project PGC2018-093925- B-C33 (MCIU/AEI/ FEDER, UE) and Quaternary Ecosystems-UCM Research Group. NS has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (Grant agreement No. 949330) and from Min- isterio de Ciencia e Innovación under the Ramón y Cajal program (RYC2020-029656-I). RBO has received funding from the Atapuerca Fig. 4 Anthropic modifications on the Early Bronze Age (A) and Middle Bronze Age (B) dog remains. A1 Slicing marks (white arrows) on the occipital bone CMI-A8-73–8 where rodent activity is also recorded (green arrow). A2 Innominate bone CMI-D2-104–10 with tooth pits (black arrow) and slicing marks (white arrows). A3 Peeling (blue arrow) in the CMI-D2-104–11 lumbar vertebra. A4 Astragalus CMI- B2-78–9 with partial calcination (red arrow). A5 General and detailed views of the slicing marks on the humerus CMI-C2- 92–1 where the typical features of fresh bone (perimortem) breakage can be observed. B1 General and detailed views of the frontal and nasal remain CMI-B2-64–3 where slicing marks (black arrows) and tooth pits (black arrow) are marked. Note the superimposition of the tooth pit on the cut mark. B2 Numerous parallel slicing marks on the rib CMI-B2-64–4. All the scale bars of the microscope views correspond to 1 mm https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-022-01522-5 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2022) 14:84 1 3 Page 17 of 21 84 Foundation. The field work at the Atapuerca sites is financed by the Junta de Castilla y León and the Atapuerca Foundation. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. 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Zool Jahrb (abt Syst) 7:773–822 Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.08.018 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.08.018 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.08.017 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.08.017 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.05.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.05.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2015.01.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2015.01.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.07.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.08.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.08.002 https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.2000.0557 https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-4165(83)90008-9 https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-4165(83)90008-9 https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1995.0024 https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1995.0024 https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1995.0096 https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1995.0096 https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2484(91)90034-S https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2484(91)90034-S Long-term dog consumption during the Holocene at the Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain): case study of the El Portalón de Cueva Mayor site Abstract Introduction The El Portalón de Cueva Mayor archaeological site Dating Materials and methods Anatomical and taxonomic identification Taphonomic analysis Results Anatomical and taxonomic identification Taphonomic analysis Neolithic (Fig. 2) Chalcolithic Bronze Age Discussion Conclusions Acknowledgements References