EARLY EUROPEAN WOMEN IN SEISMOLOGY 140 EARLY EUROPEAN WOMEN IN SEISMOLOGY ELISA BUFORN Dpt. de Física de la Tierra y Astrofísica Facultad de Ciencias Físicas Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Spain) ebufornp@ucm.es Earth Sciences History Vol. 43, No. 1, 2024 pp. 140–152 ABSTRACT Inge Lehmann is the best-known European woman seismologist, but she is not an isolated case. The presence of women seismologists in Europe has a long tradition, with the earliest women researchers appearing at the beginning of the 20th century in the United Kingdom, Denmark, the former USSR, and France. After World War II, women seismologists in Europe had an important presence. Their names are present in the lists of participants in seismological international meetings (IASPEI or ESC), where information about these women and their roles in these institutions can be found. This paper concentrates on the presence of women seismologists in Europe in the 1920–1970 period. After the 1970s, the number of women in seismology has increased considerably. Keywords: Women, seismology, Europe, pioneer, eastern and western bloc. doi: 10.17704/1944-6187-43.1.140 1. INTRODUCTION Since the beginning of the twentieth century, Europe has had a long tradition of outstanding women seismologists, although they have been a minority in the field. The presence of women in geosciences was unusual in the nineteenth century, and in some cases, their scientific knowledge was due to their marriage to a scientist (Mohr 2021). There are some examples of early women in geosciences, most of them geologists, but generally they worked as assistants, secretaries, collectors, illustrators, and so on, for researchers in the geological sciences (Kölbl-Ebert 2002 2020; Turner and Kölbl-Ebert 2016). There are some precedents for women interested in earthquakes such as Maria Graham (1785–1842), a British travel writer who gave a detailed description of the geologically relevant features of the 1822 Chilean earthquakes. She also participated in a debate at the Geological Society in London about the question of whether earthquakes can elevate land (Kölbl-Ebert 1999; Gándara-Chacana 2021). Another woman interested in earthquakes was Carolina Soto y Corro (1860–1930), a poet from Jerez, Spain, and a founding editor of the literary journal Asta Regia. She wrote a long poem divided into six parts about the impact on the inhabitants of the affected towns and villages of the 1884 Andalusian earthquake (Figure 1; Soto y Corro 1885; Udías et al. 2022). Seismology can be considered to have begun formally with the first publication of treatises on the subject by authors such as Rudolf Hoernes Erdbebenkunde (1893), John Milne Seismology (1898), and August Sieberg, Handbuch der Erdbebenkunde (1904), and the first modern global catalogues of earthquakes such as those compiled by Robert and John Mallet, Earthquake Catalogue of the British Association (1858), and Milne, A Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes, A.D. 7–1899 (1911). Inge Lehmann, of the Royal Danish Geodetic Institute, is the best-known among early women seismologists, but she was not the only one, and other women have contributed greatly to the progress of seismology since the early days of the science. In this work, I concentrate on the early European women seismologists, from 1920 to 1970. A problem with the identification of women scientists in general and their publications is that they first used their maiden names and, after marrying, changed their names, by adding the name of their husbands or simply using their married name. This can become confusing when the ELISA BUFORN 141 husbands are also scientists with publications in similar subjects, and their first names are only given by initials. A useful source to identify the presence of early women seismologists, whose publications often appeared in local journals that are difficult to access, are the proceedings of meetings of international associations, such as the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG). The IUGG was created in 1922, with a Seismology Section that later became the International Association of Seismology (IAS) and in 1951 the International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth Interior (IASPEI), both of which can be considered a continuation of the earlier International Seismological Association (ISA) created in 1904 (Schweitzer and Lay 2019). The presence of women seismologists can be found in the acts of the early meetings of these associations. For example, in the acts of the third meeting of the Seismology Section of the IUGG in Prague (3–10 September 1927), Lehmann figures as the only woman participant. At the 1936 IUGG meeting in Edinburgh, in addition to Lehmann, Yvonne Labrouste from the Institut de Physique du Globe in Paris (IPG) and Ethel F. Bellamy from the Observatory of Oxford Figure 1. The title page of the poem written by Soto and Corro (1885). EARLY EUROPEAN WOMEN IN SEISMOLOGY 142 University participated in the Seismology Section. After World War II, at the IUGG meeting in 1948 in Oslo, Lehmann and I. Bóbr-Modrakowa, from the Institut Geologiczny, Warsaw, figured as participants. In 1951, at the first IASPEI meeting, held in Brussels, Lehmann became a member of the Executive Committee of the IUGG and remained on the committee until 1963, when she was named vice-president. In 1952, in order to foster seismological research in Europe, the European Seismological Commission (ESC) was created with Lehmann’s active participation. Nadia Kondorskaya from the Institut of Earth Physics, Academy of Sciences, USSR, participated in the 1957 IUGG meeting in Toronto together with Bóbr-Modrakowa. In 1959, at the ESC meeting in Alicante (Spain), in addition to Lehmann and Labrouste (Figure 2), Alice Grandjean from the Institut de Physique et de Meteorologie d’Alger participated. Kondorskaya was later named vice president of the ESC (1976–1980). Figure 2. Yvonne Labrouste (left) and Inge Lehmann (right) at the European Seismological Commission (ESC) 1959 meeting in Alicante, Spain (courtesy of Professor Agustín Udías, personal archive). 2. PIONEER WOMEN SEISMOLOGISTS: 1920–1940 Ethel Frances Bellamy (1882–1960) was one of the first European women seismologists. Her first works were approximately in 1899 in the field of astronomy, when at Oxford Observatory, where she became a member of staff in 1912. In 1919, she began to work in seismology with Professor Herbert H. Turner (1861–1930), who continued the work of Professor John Milne (1850–1913) after his death, writing the B. A. Seismological Reports. During World War I, Turner had the assistance of Miss K. Pring and Miss Caws, but there is no information about the work carried out by these women (Bellamy and Bellamy 1931). Bellamy became editor (1930) with Turner of the International Reports of Earthquakes, formerly the Bulletin of the B. A. Seismological Committee. Her first works in seismology were at Shide Observatory, on the Isle of Wight, where she was in charge of Milne’s instruments. Bellamy’s principal contributions to ELISA BUFORN 143 seismology were the preparation, with Turner, of the International Seismological Summary and one of the first global maps of epicenters (1913–1930). The epicentral determinations were based on the observations of the P-wave travel times recorded at different stations. A brief account of this work, with some of the original data, was published in 1939 in Nature (Bellamy 1939). In this paper Bellamy called attention to the geographic distribution of the more than 7400 located epicenters, calling attention to the distribution of epicenters in the mid-Atlantic, “which follows so accurately the continental boundaries on either side” (Bellamy 1939, p. 505), and it may be considered as an antecedent of plate tectonics (Professor S. Das, personal communication). The geographical distribution of deep focus earthquakes was also remarked in this paper. She participated in the IUGG meetings of 1936 and 1939. Although Bellamy did not have university training, she received an honorary M.A. degree from Oxford University, where she continued working until 1947 (Brück 2009). Natalia Agapovna Linden (1887–1963) was probably the first Russian woman seismologist. She worked on seismicity and led a team formed by the directors of seismic stations (Lee et al. 2003; Ponomarev and Sidorin 2012). Linden published a catalog of deep-focus earthquakes for the period 1909–1944 (Linden 1947) and for Far East earthquakes (1911–1952). Other studies were focused on the seismicity of the Arctic (Raiko and Linden 1935), and she predicted the existence of the Lomonosov submarine ridge, discovered in 1948, an unusual underwater ridge of continental crust in the Arctic Ocean. Inge Lehmann (1888–1993) (Figure 3) was, without doubt, the best-known woman seismologist of her time, with her mostly observational work that led to her discovery of the inner core of the Earth. She was born in Copenhagen into a family of intellectuals and politicians, and her father was a professor of psychiatry. In 1907, she entered the University of Copenhagen to study mathematics and, in 1910, she spent one year at Cambridge University. Lehmann interrupted her studies until 1918 and then graduated from the University of Copenhagen in 1920. In 1923, she became an assistant professor at the University of Copenhagen, and in 1925 began to work with Professor Niels Erik Norlund (1885–1981) on a project to install seismological stations in Copenhagen, Ivigtut and Greenland, thus establishing her future in seismology (Bolt 1997). In 1928, Lehmann obtained her master’s degree with a thesis in seismology. In the same year she was named chief of the Department of Seismology at the Royal Danish Geodetic Institute, where she remained until her retirement in 1953. In 1929, Lehmann published her first article about precision in interpolations (Lehmann 1929). Her first works in seismology were about the observation of the different waveforms generated by earthquakes. These types of observations led her to propose the existence of a solid inner core of the Earth to justify the phases observed at great distances that could not be explained by a single liquid core. In 1936, using observations of the New Zealand earthquake of 16 June 1929, she formally proposed the existence of a solid inner core of the Earth with a radius of 1400 km (Lehmann 1936). The existence of a unitary core was first proposed by Richard Oldham (1858–1936) in 1906. Lehmann observed the arrivals of seismic waves at distances between 105° and 142° that could not be explained by Oldham’s model of a unitary core. In 1947, Lehmann began to work on observations of waves generated by explosions (Lehmann 1948) and later by nuclear explosions recorded in seismograms to study the inner structure of the Earth (Lehmann 1964, 1967, 1969). In 1951, Lehmann was invited by Professor Maurice Ewing (1906–1974), the director of Lamont Geological Observatory (LGO) at the University of Columbia, New York, to the observatory, where she worked on the study of the Lg wave phase which she continued until her retirement (Lehmann 1953, 1957). She also worked on the structure of the upper mantle using S-waves at short and teleseismic epicentral distances (Lehmann 1961, 1962). Lehmann actively participated in different international seismological organizations, as previously noted. Her outstanding research and work earned her several well- deserved awards, such as the Emil Wiechert Medal of the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gessellschaft in 1946, and the Bowie Medal of the American Geophysical Union in 1971. EARLY EUROPEAN WOMEN IN SEISMOLOGY 144 Figure 3. Inge Lehman (1888–1993) in 1932, courtesy The Royal Library, National Library of Denmark and University of Copenhagen University Library, under a Creative Commons License:http://www5.kb.dk/images/bil led/2010/okt/billeder/object11164/da Arlette Hée (1894–1962) was another early European female seismologist. Born Arlette- Clotilde-Josephine Fergant in 1919 she married Auguste Hée, a professor of botany at the University of Strasbourg, and took his name. In 1919, she began her work as an assistant professor at the Institute de Physique du Globe (IPG) in Strasbourg. In 1933, Heé obtained a Ph.D. in Physics with a thesis in seismology (Hée 1933a), but at this time women with a Ph.D. could not expect to obtain a post in higher education at the University of Strasbourg (https://maitron.fr/spip.php/article76326). In 1945, she became a professor in the Science Faculty of the University of Strasbourg (Bezzeghoud and Ayadi 2022). Many of her works were published in the Annales de l‘Institut de Physique du Globe, of Strasbourg, which reported on studies of the seismicity of Algeria (Hée 1925, 1932, 1933b) and a catalog of earthquakes in Algeria for the period 1850–1911 (Hée 1950). Later, she worked on radioactivity. Yvonne Labrouste (1899–1991) (Figure 2). Her first work was a study of a devastating earthquake that occurred on 16 December 1920 in China published under her maiden name, Yvonne Dammann (Dammann 1924–1925). This paper was published in 1926 in the book review of the Bulletin of Seismological Society of America (Dammann 1926). She also worked on seismic instrumentation (Dammann 1927; Rivera et al. 2021) and on the historical seismicity of China (Labrouste-Dammann 1930). In 1943, she became a ‘physician-adjoint’ at the Institut de Physique du Globe (IPG) in Paris and published, together with her husband, Henri Labrouste, also a ELISA BUFORN 145 professor at the IPG, a study of a method of graphic analysis of the superposition of sinusoidal waves (Labrouste and Labrouste 1943). In 1950, Labrouste became interested in studying the Earth’s crust using seismic refraction methods (Beaufils et al. 1954). Together with H. Closs (BGR, Hannover), she led the Subcommission of Alpine Explosions under the umbrella of the IUGG for the study of the structure of the Alps (Closs and Labrouste 1963). She participated in many international meetings, the first of which was the 1936 IUGG in Edinburgh. Edokiya Aleksandrova Rozova (1899–1971) was a graduate in theoretical physics from the University of Leningrad in 1924. In 1926 she started as the head of Sverdlovsk (the name of Ekaterinburg city between 1924 and 1991) seismic station and organized the seismic station in Andizhan, Uzbekistan in 1928. In 1930, she worked for the Seismological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Lee et al. 2003; Ponomarev and Sidorin 2012)). She analyzed many seismograms to study the physical properties and structure of the Earth’s crust, focusing on seismicity and the structure of Central Asia (Rozova 1936, 1963). 3. EUROPEAN SEISMOLOGY: 1940 to 1970 World War II led to a notable decrease in seismological activities, especially in Europe, and consequently in the holding of congresses, meetings, both national and international, and publications. After the war, the division of Europe into two blocs was an added difficulty for the dissemination of seismological research. The establishment of the European Seismological Commission (ESC) in 1952 was an effort to mitigate this problem, encouraging collaboration between seismologists from both blocs and alternating meetings in countries of the two blocs. Between 1940 and 1970, there was an important presence of women from each bloc of the divided Europe. 3.1 Eastern bloc At the 1948 Oslo IUGG meeting, one of the few women seismologists participating was Irena Bóbr (1889–1959), an associate professor at the Institute of Geophysics of the Polish Academy of Sciences. She later attended the 1957 Toronto IUGG meeting under her married name, Irena Bóbr-Modrakowa. In 1938, she became director of the Seismological Observatory in Warsaw, and between 1940 and 1949, she authored many publications (personal communication from Professor Renata Dmwoska). Zofia Halina Droste (1930–1994), also from Poland, was a graduate in theoretical physics from the University of Warsaw in 1954 and later became an associate professor at the Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences (Lee et al. 2003). Her Ph.D. thesis was titled “An analysis of dynamic properties of the far field displacement generated by mining tremors in Upper Silesia”. She studied the dislocation mechanism in earthquake generation and the distribution of radiated seismic energy (Droste and Teyseire 1959). Another Polish seismologist was Bozenna Gadomska (1931–2011) who worked on the study of the Earth’s structure using seismic refraction techniques (Wojtczak-Gadomska et al. 1964). Between 1948 and 1955, numerous women participated in the first seismic refraction studies in the USSR, mainly in Central Asia and the area south of the Caspian Sea. Among the leaders of these projects was Antonina Michaylovna Yepinatyeva (1914–1998). In some references her name is given as A. M. Epinatyeva. She graduated in geophysics from Moscow University in 1939 and was a pioneer in the study of refracted and reflected seismic waves in the Earth’s crust (Yepinatyeva and Ivanova 1959, 1961; Lee et al. 2003; Ponomarev and Sidorin 2012). Irina Petrovna Kosminskaya (1916–1996) was another important seismologist from the Institute of Physics of the Earth of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, who published many works about the results of seismic refraction projects (Kosminskaya and Tulina 1956; Kosminskaya et al. 1958; Kosminskaya et al. 1969; Ponomarev and Sidorin 2012). Evdokiya Mikhailovne Butovskaya (1917–1982) was director from 1963 to 1982 of the ‘Seismological EARLY EUROPEAN WOMEN IN SEISMOLOGY 146 Methods for Studying and Modeling the Structure of Earth Crust’ laboratory at the Institute of Geology and Geophysics of the Uzbek Academy of Sciences. She identified the converted waves in seismograms and developed methods for the analysis of crust, upper mantle, and seismic zonation (Butovskaya and Kovalenko 1955; Butovskaya et al. 1961; Butovskaya and Kuznetsova 1971). Tatyana G. Rautian (b. 1926) is widely recognized for her studies of the earthquake source, seismic coda (Rautian and Khalturin 1978), and the study and discrimination of nuclear explosions (Khalturin and Rautian 2001). She studied physics in Leningrad and started work in seismology in the early 1950s. Rautian did important work on the location of earthquakes and the estimation of radiated seismic energy. From the 1970s she participated actively in the exchanges between American and Soviet researchers. In 2010 Rautian received the Harry Fielding Reid Medal. From 1950 to 1970 there was a notable presence of women in the former USSR in the study of the source mechanism of earthquakes. Special mention is deserved by Anna Victorovna Vvendeskaya (1923–1997, Figure 4) who graduated from Irkutsk State University in 1945 (Lee et al. 2003; Ponomarev and Sidorin 2012). She published her first work in 1954 (Keilis-Borok and Vvedenskaya 1954) and was the first to apply the ideas of elastic dislocations to the representative source of earthquakes proposed in 1930 by Volterra and developed in 1951 by Nabarro (Udías 1991; Vvedenskaya 1956, 1959, 1969). Figure 4. Anna Victorovna Vvendeskaya (1923–1997), in the mid- 1950s. (Courtesy of Professor Emile Okal, personal archive). Another outstanding female seismologist was Nadezhda Vladimirovna Kondorskaya (1925–2007) of the Institute of Earth Sciences in the Academy of Sciences USSR (Figure 5). She often participated in IASPEI meetings, such as those in Toronto (1957), Helsinki (1960), and Berkeley (1963). In 1966, Kondorskaya spent two months at the International Seismological Center (ISC), Edinburgh, in charge of the Seismic Network of the USSR. She was a member of the Executive Committee of the ISC between 1970 and 1995, and actively participated in the ESC, where she was vice-president between 1976 and 1980. Kondorskaya worked mainly on the determination of the focal parameters of earthquakes and their focal mechanism (Kondorskaya 1959; Belotov et al. 1961; Kárnik et al. 1962; Bune et al. 1970; Lee et al. 2003; Ponomarev and Sidorin 2012). ELISA BUFORN 147 Figure 5 . Nadezhda Vladimirovna Kondorskaya (1925–2007) in 1966 at the ISC (Edinburgh; http://www.isc.ac.uk/about/history/ale vshin/). 3.2 The western bloc In the western bloc, women seismologists continued to be very active during this period, with important roles in international institutions such as the IASPEI. As we have already seen, there was a tradition of women in seismology in France which continued from 1940 to 1970. Among them was Alice Grandjean, an assistant at the Institut de Météorologie et de Physique du Globe d’Alger (Algeria) who continued the work on the seismicity of Algeria begun by Hée (Grandjean 1954, 1959, 1960). She participated in the meetings of the ESC in Alicante (1969) and of the IUGG (1960 and 1963). After the independence of Algeria in 1962, Grandjean continued working in Algeria with Nicole Girardin, who later moved to the IPG of Paris (Grandjean et al. 1966; Hatzfeld et al. 1977; Bezzeghoud and Ayadi 2022). Another woman who stood out in France in this period was Nelly Jobert (1933–2018) (Figure 6), born Jacqueline Nelly Marie Gicquel. She studied at the Ecole Normale Superiéure in Paris (promotion Scientifique Sevres, 1946), where she met her husband Georges Jobert, later a leading seismologist at IPG, and took his name. She calculated the free oscillation periods of a heterogeneous Earth model using the Rayleigh principle (Jobert 1956; Ben-Menahen 1995), and published some of the first studies on the free oscillations of the Earth using an inclinometer that recorded the large 1960 Chile earthquake (Jobert 1961; Connes et al. 1962) and those oscillations generated by the large Alaska 1964 earthquake using an ultra-long period seismometer (Blum et al. 1966). Jobert was basically an observational seismologist who studied surface waves and the free and forced oscillations of the Earth (Blum et al. 1966; Jobert 1976; Jobert et al. 1978). EARLY EUROPEAN WOMEN IN SEISMOLOGY 148 Figure 6. Nelly Jobert in 1985 (courtesy of Professor J. P. Montager). 3.3 Recent developments In the 1970s, a new age in seismology began with the installation of the first digital seismographs and the use of digital computers to analyze seismic waves so research on seismology considerably increased in European universities and seismological institutes. At this time, there was also a notable increase in the number of women seismologists in Europe. Another fact to be considered is the end of the separation between the two European blocs and the increased mobility of European researchers worldwide, especially to the USA. Many women in seismology started their careers at this time, and were pioneers in the use of digital data and numerical methods. They started to publish their research at the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s. Among them, for example, in Paris, France at the IPG, there were Barbara Romanowicz (Romanowicz 1979, 1980, 1982), Anne Deschamps (Deschamps et al. 1980), Genevieve Roult (Roult and Romanowicz 1984), Shamita Das (Das and Aki 1977; Das 1980; Das and Krostov 1983) at MIT in the USA, and Renata Dmwoska (Pawlak-Dmwoska 1970; Dmwoska et al. 1972) at the Institute of Geophysics of the Polish Academy of Science and Harvard University. In more recent times, a considerable number of women in different countries of Europe have been active and contributing to the advancement of seismological research. A brilliant future is open to them following the steps of the early pioneers. 4. CONCLUSIONS In Europe, there is a long tradition of women seismologists that can be traced back to the beginning of the twentieth century. However, they were initially a minority and, in some cases, it is difficult to identify their contributions published under their maiden names. Most likely some women should have appeared as coauthors on numerous earlier studies on seismic data, but their work was not recognized. In some cases, they were mentioned as ‘assistants’, which makes it difficult to know the full extent of their contributions. The situation of the early European women seismologists was not very different from that of women in other areas of sciences, and it varied in different countries. In the early years, there was an important presence of women seismologists in central and northern European countries (such as France, Denmark, Poland, and the former USSR). However, there is no trace of women seismologists in the southern countries such as Greece, Italy, Spain or Portugal, even though those ELISA BUFORN 149 are more active seismic regions. This situation has changed in recent years with a significant number of women seismologists active also in these countries. In the former USSR there was an important presence of women, however, there is no trace of their participation in international meetings until the 1950s. This lack of information may be due to difficulties in participating in international meetings, their role as assistants, or that they published their research in local journals. In the information on the participants of the IASPEI meetings there was no mention of women seismologists from the USSR prior to 1957. The ESC played an important role in the diffusion and collaboration of seismological research between the two blocs that arose in Europe after World War II. During this period, European women seismologists from both blocs participated, and occupied prominent positions, in the ESC and other scientific associations, such as IASPEI. Beginning in 1970 and continuing today, the number of women in seismology has increased rapidly in most European countries. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful for the support provided by Professor Agustín Udías (Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain), Professor Luis Rivera (University of Strasbourg, France), Professor Emil Okal (Northwestern University, USA), Professor Renata Dmwoska (Harvard University, USA), Professor Shamita Das (Oxford University, UK), Professor Mourad Bezzeghoud (Universidade de Evora, Portugal), Dr. Hélene Lyon-Caen (ENS, Paris, France), Dr. Simone Cesca (GFZ Potsdam, Germany), Professor Jean- Paul Montagner (IPG, Paris, France), Dr. Dimiti Storchack (ISC, UK) and Dr. Alexander Ponomarev (RAS, Moscow, Russia). Thanks to Christopher P. Hannan for the English revision. The author greatly appreciates the corrections and suggestions of the Editor and the reviewers, Professor Martina Kölbl-Ebert and Professor Greg Good. 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